From Hope to Hardship: The 19th-Century Story of Poland’s Great Emigration

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When the November Uprising collapsed in October 1831, all hope of Poland regaining independence militarily was brutally dashed by reality. Thousands of Poles left their homeland and decided to settle – initially only temporarily – in countries that were more politically friendly to them. This event, known as the Great Emigration, was unprecedented in Polish history and marked a significant moment in the 19th century.

Prior to this period, political emigration was rare. However, after the uprising ended, officers, parliamentarians and government officials, as well as ordinary soldiers, did not want to or could not take advantage of the Tsarist amnesty that would have allowed them to return home. Their journey across Germany was a triumphant one, which had a great influence on their later mentality. Wherever they went, the local population enthusiastically welcomed the former insurgents, organised banquets in their honour, provided them with comfortable rest and even money. Treated as heroes, the emigrants became convinced of the solidarity of European nations, the imminent arrival of another uprising for freedom, and the readiness of the Germans to provide armed assistance.

The emigrants settled in Great Britain, Switzerland and Belgium, but the most important centre of the Great Emigration was France, and Paris in particular. The French government paid former insurgents financial benefits according to their military rank, but over time these amounts gradually decreased, forcing the emigrants to seek sources of income.

Most of the emigrants were men who had left behind everything that defined their identity – property, titles and of course families. They did not treat emigration as a new reality to which they had to adapt, but as a transitional state before the outbreak of another revolution and a return to the fight for freedom and independence. This meant they primarily felt like retired soldiers and wanted to ‘keep themselves safe for Poland’.

Over the years, however, the enthusiasm and belief in the imminent next uprising increasingly gave way to the reality of emigration. The emigrants either accepted it, at least partially renouncing their identity as ‘Polish soldiers on call’, or strove to escape it – into gambling, debauchery, duels, as well as mental illness and suicide.

A bachelor’s life & the quest for family

The overwhelming predominance of men among the Great Emigration generation defined its identity and had far-reaching consequences. There are examples of female emigrants – notable mentions include Delfina Potocka, Joanna Bobrowa and Ksawera Deybel – but their individual biographies do not allow for a comprehensive picture of the female side of exile. The issue of starting a family in emigration was, however, a sensitive one.

Bachelorhood was associated with the mobility and readiness to return to the fight for national liberation. As the years passed, all those hopes now melted and only reality left, emigrants increasingly entered into marriages. However, they stigmatised marriages with foreigners, especially with representatives of Poland’s occupiers – Russians, Germans and Austrians.

Unmarried women constituted only a small percentage of emigrants, so any potential marriage often involved a young woman abandoning her home in the Polish homelands and voluntarily joining the emigrants (as was the case with Celina Szymanowska, who married Adam Mickiewicz). Poles who started families with foreign women were a distinct minority, although of course it did happen, Ignacy Domeyko and Ludwik Nabielak being prime examples. Many decided to remain old bachelors or limit themselves to informal relationships (such as Juliusz Słowacki, Fryderyk Chopin, Cyprian Norwid and Seweryn Goszczyński).

Moreover, the belief in the temporary nature of emigration encouraged many former insurgents to court local women – to such an extent that the authorities were forced to intervene many times so that townswomen were not afraid to go out in the evenings – and to use the services of prostitutes. Casual sex resulted in venereal diseases, which were treated as a norm of emigration life and not a reason for shame or condemnation. There was a general acceptance of the freedom that bachelorhood entailed, although maintaining combat fitness was cultivated at the same time.

The struggle against poverty & social decline

The most painful common experience of the Great Emigration was poverty. The French government provided former insurgents with an allowance – referred to colloquially as ‘żołd’, meaning a soldier’s fee – which was only enough to cover the most basic needs. Men, on the other hand, cut off from any potential assets back home, had to find a source of income. However, the typical approach to work was characterised by the same fleeting mindset as their relationships.

Most emigrants did not want to start a new life abroad, deluding themselves with prospects of an imminent return home. Moreover, the job market in France or England was not able to absorb hundreds of new employees, most of whom were either uneducated or had education that was difficult to verify. Former insurgents did not want to train either, because it could prevent them from joining the fight in the next revolution. As a result, they were often offered the simplest, lowest-paid jobs – building roads and bridges, in rail stations, in printing houses and as cheap labour in private enterprises. In addition, Poles often received much lower wages than Frenchmen in identical positions, sometimes even when employed by entrepreneurs who were also emigrants – according to the leaflet-proclamation Do Tułaczów Polskich (To Polish Wanderers), publishers Aleksander Jełowicki and Eustachy Januszkiewicz paid printers 4 sous less than the French printing house of Pinard.

Poverty was such a widespread phenomenon that only the most extreme cases were even recorded. Modest incomes were often insufficient to meet the most basic needs. When looking at the correspondence of emigrants, the most constant topics found in their writing are hunger, including long-term starvation, and the state of their clothing, especially underwear. The lack of appropriate clothing, in turn, prevented participation in social gatherings and ceremonies, which inevitably led to social degradation.

Charity & the search for meaning in religion

However, many emigrants who were better off did try to organise help for the rest. In the early days of exile, many ran communal tables where one could eat Polish dishes for a small monthly fee. The Polish Society (known as the Polish Club) founded in 1837 tried to provide not only meals but also a familial, homely atmosphere for Polish refugees. Political discussions were completely banned, as they often divided the emigrants and became the cause of quarrels and even duels. Entertainment at the club included reading magazines and playing billiards and cards, and the board charged fees for the number of games played to curb gambling appetites. After the Spring of Nations from 1848 to 1849, the society was officially dissolved. Later in 1862, a new organisation called the Tax Association was established, the aim of which, despite its name, was to provide ‘bread and honour’ to the deserving. These merits were understood very broadly, and when granting benefits and pensions, the only criterion was the emigrant’s proper conduct.

Being in a hopeless situation, many former insurgents turned to religion. Initially, the situation looked quite different; Father Hieronim Kasjewicz complained: ‘The emigration youth read only one book: the history of the French Revolution, they read only one thought – the need for a social revolution to rebuild Poland’. He called their spiritual life ‘practical apostasy’.

Over time, emigrants suffering from increasing poverty found solace in religion. Adam Mickiewicz, an exceptionally spiritual man, together with Ignacy Domeyko, Antoni Gorecki, Józef and Bohdan Zaleski, Stefan Witwicki, Cezary Plater and Bogdan Jański founded an informal spiritual community called the Bracia Zjednoczeni (United Brethren). As Zaleski recalled years later:

In matters of Faith we were all already standing in the Church, with shades of various personal beliefs against the Jesuits and priests, which our colleague Jański tried to harmonise, having sought out excellent confessors in Paris and the area. Around that time, we began common prayers at Adam’s, which were recited by Antoni Gorecki, the oldest among us, with a special reverence.

This community quickly fell apart, but its members retained their need for spirituality. After a brief fascination with Saint-Simonism, Jański decided to provide spiritual help to those in need, especially those who had lost their way in life.

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Portrait of Andrzej Towiański by Walenty Wańkowicz, circa 1830, photo: National Museum in Warsaw

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He gathered around himself a group of followers, including the future priests Hieronim Kasjewicz and Piotr Semenenko. Both of them, after entering the clergy, founded the order of the Congregation of the Resurrection of the Lord, commonly known as the Resurrectionists. This order set itself the task of looking after the interests of the Church and Poland and of exterminating all manifestations of heresy.

Shortly after Jański's death, a mystic from Lithuania called Andrzej Towiański appeared in Paris, announcing an imminent return to the homeland. By winning over Adam Mickiewicz (whose wife he mysteriously cured of a mental illness), he managed to quickly reach a wide group of emigrants. Soon, together with Mickiewicz, he founded the Koło Sprawy Bożej (Circle of the Cause of God), whose members, the Towianists, were to work primarily on themselves and their spiritual development. After Towiański was expelled from France, Mickiewicz took over the group, but the growing discord between them eventually led to the disintegration of the community. In turn, the Resurrectionists fought ferociously with the Towianists and Mickiewicz, accusing them of heresy.

Ultimately, the Great Emigration was not a triumphant return but a long and arduous journey of adaptation and loss. It was a period of immense personal struggle, political disillusionment and a search for new forms of identity and purpose in foreign lands. While the dream of an independent Poland lived on, it did so in the hearts and minds of a generation forever changed by exile. This collective experience, marked by both heroism and tragedy, left an indelible mark on Polish history and culture, influencing generations of artists, thinkers and political leaders. Even today, the mixed legacy of the Great Emigration continues to be a source of national pride and a powerful reminder of the sacrifices made in the pursuit of freedom.

Originally written in Polish by Robert Kowalski, Nov 2022, translated by Michał Pelczar, July 2025

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